Islamic Architecture in India

Islamic Architecture in India Introduction India is vast in culture and traditions, nature, religions, languages rich with historical monuments with vernacular architectures. Taj Mahal is one such wonderous monument structures built by ShahJahan as tomb in memory of his adored wife, Mumtaj Mahal. Taj Mahal is renowned for its glorious Indo-Islamic architectural presence in style, shape, color, location of the monument and material used to construct it. It is one of the eighth wonder of worlds famous monuments and appreciated by its visitors interests for their insight into its culture, time and history of the monument. Therefore, Taj Mahal architecture can be renowned as the largest model combination of the derivative of Byzantine, Persian, Indian and Islamic architecture. The Indo-Islamic architecture takes live in form with the slave dynasty in India. It is credited to Mughal dynasty in Pakistan and India, the field of arts and architecture who gave special care to raise historical monuments in India. The earliest monuments what we find in India are the recycled material of the existing Jain, Buddha and Hindu monuments. The Islamic architecture was then fostered by the Delhi Sultanate and achieved excellence by the Mughal contributions. The Background of Islamic Architecture in India The Persian dynasties dating back to 500 BCE has seen many Islamic faith dynasties. Throughout the ruling dynasties, Persia (modern Iran) has modeled as center for many art, architecture, poetry and philosophy. Persia is well known for its trade since pre-historic times. The Silk Route acts as bridge between distant lands for trade, religious and material culture. The business also spread to main lands of central Asia, including Armenia, Georgia, and India. Persia has also seen developmental fronts in architecture which spread many Asian countries as did business too. The climate, the influence of people, available material, religious purpose and peripheral cultures, and patrons also played a important role in the development of architecture (Mehraby).The magnificent architectural buildings take inspiration from the landscape, snow-capped mountains, valleys, and wide shining plains which conceived and accomplished novel ideas for building artifacts while mountains serve both physical and mental sources of inspirations in Iranian architecture.Thus, Beauty is regarded divine for ancient Persian civilizations. The Architectural Intentions of the Taj Mahal Taj Mahal traces its architecture as rooted with Islamic conjectures. Though the Persian or the Islamic civilization was not the first to concentrate their architecture on religious themes, it was a strong feature among Byzantine architects. The Byzantine Architecture records the religious buildings and their designs as achievements of the Byzantine Empire. The most remarkable example at Constantinople is Hagia Sophia, a Christian church at Constantinople (the present Istanbul) is a massive and ornamental church represents the glory of the Byzantine Empire. The architectural intentions also note the power factor in Islamic architecture. The Islamic dynasties believe in spreading Islam and glorify to God by articulating through mosques, unmatching historical monuments and palaces of excellent beauty. To achieve this, they desire and acquire power to patronage architecture. The Islamic architecture spread as far as Egypt and North Africa, Spain, and Persia. Then, they developed their unique style by combining the arts of the Byzantines, the Copts, the Romans, and the Sassanids. This unique style specializes in fusing the native design elements with imported ones. Taj Mahal suffices this stance. The memories of Mumtaj Mahal are spread all over the world symbolizing his love for her. The uniqueness of this monument is its dome structure which is feature of Byzantine architecture. The abstract designs are noteworthy of Persian architecture, the floral designs and painting goes to Safavid style, the location of the building is also an important factor which totally reiterates the presence of chief Persian architecture. Communicating spirituality is yet another perspective attributed to Islamic Architecture. This perspective has been practiced among sages, philosophers, poets, and spiritual masters of Islamic countries. The disciple of proliferating Islamic law through the pursuit of knowledge, reflections on reality of nature beyond appearance, disciplined prayer is also reflected on their architecture. The stone flowers of the Taj Mahal gives a picture of realism fascinating the visitor with their grace and colorful freshness, (Okado and Joshi). The Taj Mahals mention to paradise can be seen in the motif of flowers carved on the funerary chambers of the mausoleum, as well as on the plinths of the inner iwan, where flowers and roses symbolize the Kingdom of Allah, (Bin and Rasdi). The Byzantines architecture also followed similar organizing principles. Whereas the Christian religious worship place and its design corresponds to the religion. Therefore, symbolism also played a significant role in the evolution of the form of the monuments. During the Byzantine period the Church itself became a symbol of the faith. The master piece of Indo-Islamic Architectural style, the beauty of the Taj Mahal, inspires numerous artists from all over the world. To this, Okada and Joshi (1993) relates to the four canals to the four rivers of Paradise referred in the Holy Quran. The symbolic nature of the garden and the canals at Taj Mahal is considered the funereal nature of the monument and the Quran inscription located on the southern entrance wall of the main Gate gives undeniable credibility to the comparison of the Taj Mahal with the Garden of Paradise, this inscription says: (It will be said to the pious): O (you) the one in (complete) rest and satisfaction! Come back to your Lord, well-pleased (yourself) and well-pleasing unto him! Enter you, then, among My honored slaves, And enter you My Paradise! The Holy Quran, Surah Al-Fajr: 89:27-30 Therefore, it is notable to see the students of Islamic architecture enduring Taj Mahal as an incomparable monument in Persian origin. The Architecture, Structure of Taj Mahal The Byzantine and Islamic architecture share a common style of architecture, the dome. The Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem is in response to the Islamic architecture which shows the influence of Byzantine architecture imparted as the dome style passed on to the Islamic architecture. It is also known as Persian dome. Today, it is called the Onion Dome. This architecture advancement of the use of dome is accredited formed a new style in global architecture. The most celebrated example is the Taj Mahal (A.D. 1630) built by Mughal Dynasty in India. But, this is not new to Indian architecture. The well known Buddhist Stupa at Sanchi, India 4th to 1st century BCE is a commemorative monument associated with preserving sacred relics. Not only these, the Mauryan kingdom (c. 321-185 BCE) in India also fortify their cities with Stupas, Viharas, and temples were constructed, (Kumar). The Taj Mahal consists of sixteen chambers, eight chambers each on two levels that contain the octagonal funerary chamber overcome by a surbased inner dome. The funerary chamber consists of the tombs of Mumtaj Mahal and Shah Jahan together, adorned by a baluster of delicately perforated marble and studded with semiprecious stones, (Okado and Joshi). Persians focused their efforts on reviewing their architecture in barrel vaulting, crenallated roofs, conical squinches, big bricks, oval arches and different designed brick work or now and again platerworks over bricks. Though the architecture is traced to 3000 years, the design elements of Persian architecture like high-arched portal set within a recess, columns with bracket capitals, columned porch or talar, a dome on four arches, a vast ovoid arch in the entrance, a four iwan courtyard, early towers reaching up toward the sky, an interior court and pool, an angled entrance and extensive decorations display their distinctive structural designs, (Mehraby). The Structure The intended tomb is made of large white marble structure standing on a square plinth beam consisting of a symmetrical building with an iwan (arch-shaped doorway) presented with a large dome and finial at the top. Franà §ois Bernier noted how the centre of every arch is adorned with white marble slabs whereon are inscribed large Arabian characters in black marble. This structure styling reflects Persian architecture. The base is multi-chambered cube with chamfered corners creating an unequal octagon of approximately 55 meters on all the four long sides. On each of these sides, a massive pishtaq, or a vaulted archway, frames the iwan with two similarly shaped, arched balconies stacked on either side forming a symmetrical shape on all sides of the building. There are four minarets frame the tomb and the main chamber houses the false graves of Mumtaz Mahal and Shah Jahan. The actual graves are located at a lower level. The top of the dome is fancily decorated with a lotus design. The columned bases open through the roof of the tomb and provide light to the interior. Tall decorative spires (guldastas) extend from edges of base walls, and provide visual emphasis to the height of the dome. The dome and chattris are topped by a gilded finial, which mixes traditional Persian and Hindu decorative elements, (Wiki). Even the tenure of Byzantine architecture, the discovery of pendentives and dome on pendentives changed the expertise for constructing churches and eased the procedure during the Byzantine period. The bronze make of moon and its horns pointing upwards, the heavenward in trident shape clearly indicates the mixing of Persian and Hindu decorations. The symbolic meaning can be derived as Hindu symbol of Shiva. The minarets are 40 meters tall; each minaret dividing into three equal parts by two working balconies surmounted by a chattri that mirrors the design of a lotus design topped by a gilded finial, (Wiki). The subsequent Islamic architecture in India signifies in the form of Mosques and tombs facade beautification is the main form. The evolution of the dome style as called the basic cube and hemisphere terminology in past architecture was later brought into excellence at some stage in the Mughal Period. The experts say that Taj Mahal replicates Humayuns tomb before the blueprint for Taj Mahal was formed. The best examples for the Indo-Islamic Architecture are the Gol Gumbaz at Bijapur, Agra Fort, Buland Darwaza, Qutab Minar and Safdarjang Tomb. Hambly (1964) writes the architecture of Taj Mahal to be of Safavid style in his Cities of Mughal India which accounts the amazing factors of Mughal dynasty. Safavid is yet another dynasty which ruled Persia during 1499-1722 B.C.E. Safavid has great deal of finest works of metal art works like arms, armor, candle stand, helmets, drinking vessels, and wine bowls. Ruggiero notes the events during the Safavids, networks of caravansaries were constructed to facilitate transportation and promote trade since Persia was business center for many countries then, (Hambly). The calligraphy on the large pishtaq is definite work of Safavid. Anon says, the Mughal emperor Shah Jahan conferred Amanat Khan title for his work for his dazzling virtuosity. This inscription from the Quran can be found underneath the interior dome are the inscription, Written by the insignificant being, Amanat Khan Shirazi.. Not only this, the calligraphy found on the marble grave is attended in detail and delicate. Historical, Societal and Cultural Importance of Islamic Architecture Haider (2002) studies the Islamic architecture along the fourfold phenomenon activity of societal implications namely, the dwelling imperative, the functional imperative, the constructive imperative and aesthetic imperative; these principles also project our images, expectations, definitions, and critique of Islamic architecture. Functional importance of any building under this architecture marks as symbolic or a marker or an icon or a monument fundamental to uphold the longing remembrances and therefore, indicate meaning of a society. If we can cross these societal manifestations against the architectural intentions, a more focused and prolific discussion can be formed. Our study on Taj Mahal is one such productive result of these crossing. If we can view Islam as religion and as historical observable fact of power and patronage and inclined to seek the aesthetic imperative and symbolic expression in architecture, the focus is more likely on Taj Mahal. Conclusion The Mughal courts established in Pakistan and India were occupied by poets and calligraphy artists from Persia who took flight from their very little home country to fortune earning in India. The constructions what we see of Mughal dynasty is the work of these Iranians who were the special guidance of the Mughal Empire who gave attention for very detail to raise monuments for the public to praise the Islamic architecture. The Islamic architecture holds its generosity in various monuments found mostly in India. They portray their love for art and inturn to God. Their thrust to spread the fame is notable. We see every dynasty or the empire have their own set of values, cultures and traditions. These impacts are also well noticeable in their architectures. Therefore, the Islamic architecture is symbolic of the architecture they produce. Work Cited Books Amina Okada and M.C. Joshi. (1993). Taj Mahal. Abbeville press Guido Ruggiero. (2002). A companion to the worlds of the Renaissance. Wiley-Blackwell Roger Savory. (2008). Iran Under the Safavids. Cambridge University Press Franà §ois Bernier (1996). Travels in the Mogul Empire 1656-1668. Asian Educational Service Raj Kumar. (2003). Essays on Indian art and architecture: History and culture series. Discovery publishing house Journal Mohamad Tajuddin Bin and Haji Mohamad Rasdi. (2008). Reconstructing the idea of Islamic architecture: restructuring the academic framework and design approach within the perspective of the Sunnah. The Journal of Architecture, 13:3(6). pp 297 315. Online Sources Mehraby, Rahman. http://www.destinationiran.com/Architecture.htm Okado and Joshi. http://www.islamicart.com/library/empires/india/taj_mahal.html Bin and Rasdi. http://www.islamicart.com/library/empires/india/taj_mahal.htmlAnon. The Taj Mahal. Islamic architecture. Islamic Arts and Architecture Organization. Accessed on 25 Nov 2009. http://www.islamicart.com/library/empires/india/taj_mahal.html. General Information about Iranian Architecture. Accessed on 25 Nov 2009. http://www.destinationiran.com/Architecture.htm Introduction of Islamic architecture to India. Accessed on 27 Nov 2009 http://www.india9.com/i9show/Taj-Mahal-19777.htm Byzantine Architecture. Accessed on 25 Nov 2009. http://library.thinkquest.org/C005594/Medieval/byzantine.htm http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_architecture

International Eugenics Essay -- Sociology

Throughout the history of international relations, the study of human diversity has held a key role in establishing the political principles and recognized shared culture that defines nationhood. Nations have traditionally been associated with a specific geographic location and political ideology, but they also have ethnical identifiers associated with this shared culture. These ethnical identifiers were thrust onto the world stage during the end of the nineteenth century with the introduction of the study of eugenics. The purpose of this study is to examine the historiography of the eugenics movement as it occurred globally, providing a comparative survey of programs, legislation and ideologies in multiple nation settings. In order to provide a global comparative study of international eugenic programs and ideologies, several disciplines will be followed, focusing on four major terms used to delineate eugenics, â€Å"population, quality, territory, and nation.† Although eugenics has been seriously examined by historians since the 1960’s, international comparisons are a recent addition to the field of research, emerging near the end of the twentieth century. Even as these comparative studies become more popular, the majority of this research focuses on eugenics in Britain, Germany, and the United States. For these reasons, this study will attempt to highlight the movement outside of the Western world only drawing on their historiography as precedents throughout the global community. In 1963, Mark H. Haller published Eugenics: Hereditarian Attitudes in American Thought. As the first major history of American eugenics, Haller encapsulated the movement and only hinted at the biological doctrines of the Nazi’s and Soviet Union. Haller... ...155. Stepan, Nancy. The Hour of Eugenics: Race, Gender, and Nation in Latin America. (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1991), 4. Broberg, Gunnar, and Nils Roll-Hansen. Eugenics and the Welfare State: Sterilization Policy in Denmark, Sweden, Norway, and Finland. (East Lansing: Michigan State University Press, 1996), 2. Dikà ¶tter, Frank. Imperfect Conceptions: Medical Knowledge, Birth Defects, and Eugenics in China. (New York: Columbia University Press, 1998), 2. Cleminson, Richard. Anarchism, Science, and Sex: Eugenics in Eastern Spain, 1900-1937. (Oxford: New York: P. Lang, 2000), 11. Chung, Yuehtsen Juliette. Struggle for National Survival: Eugenics in Sino-Japanese Contexts, 1896-1945. (New York: Routledge, 2002), 145. Bucur, Maria. Eugenics and Modernization in Interwar Romania. (Pittsburgh, Pa.: University of Pittsburgh Press, 2002), 5.

Media criticism paper

When he first was signed to his record label and released his debut single, I will admit I was not a huge fan Of his. But as he got older, along with me, and his music started becoming more mainstream, and relatable it was hard not to love him as an artist, plus he got much easier to look at. My love for him peaked in the fall of 201 2 when my best friend and I attended his concert in Portland. It was impossible not to fall in love with him, after spending 3 hours listening to Justine serenade us with songs varying from all four of his albums out at the current time.Since then he has released and acoustic version of his ever popular ‘Believe' album. Justine concerts aren't just him standing on stage singing into a microphone either, he is a performer, and his concert was a production, lots of time and effort goes into each and every show he performs. But Justine is much more than just a pop sensation; he is also a very charitable person. He has donated of millions of dollars to various charities since his rise to stardom. Though recently, he has been getting a lot of negative press, which has been hard for any, if not all of his â€Å"Believers†(what Justine calls his millions of dedicated fans) to hear.Justine is constantly under the media's microscope and every single thing he does get criticized and scrutinized by the paparazzi and by the media. Justine main audience is young, teen girls and with some of the things that the media has accused him of doing recently have parents keeping girls from going to his concerts. For being less than two decades old, Justine Bibber has done more charity work than most kids his age will do in their entire lives. Although he has made more money in the short time he has been in the footlight than most people would know what to do with, he does a great deal of good with all that dough.Most recently, in wake of the devastating typhoon in the Philippines, â€Å"Justine Bibber is finally using his fame for good- by turning his love for graffiti into hard cash for a Philippines typhoon relief group†(Jiffies). Bibber posted a picture to his Mainstream of him next to the ‘Pray 4 Philippines' graffiti he made. It has been reported that Justine is to sell Off the cans Of spray paint he used, along with a signed picture of the painting o help raise money for Typhoon Hanna (Jiffies). But tagging the walls of L. A. Is not the only charity Justine Bibber does.Just this summer he granted his 20th Make-a-Wish Foundation. At one of his meet and greets during his Atlanta concert in August, Justine met an eight year old girl with a life threatening liver condition. She got to ask him a series of question and at the very end she asked him to marry her, only to have him get down on one knee and pretend propose to her himself. This was the 20th Make-a-Wish Bibber had granted, the most by any recording artist ever (Acacias). In addition, Justine Bibber donates one dollar from every concert tour tic ket to charity.From the two tours he's been on, it comes out to be 13 million dollars (Earthman). Those are just a few of the good deeds the young pop star has done since his rise to fame, he has also founded/supported 14 different charities and 17 various causes (Justine Bibber). Like every teenage boy, Justine has recently been caught â€Å"experimenting† with different substances. The only problem with him doing so rather than every other teen, is he has constant microscope over him watching his every eve, and scrutinizing every thing he does.Earlier this year reports surfaced that Bibber has allegedly been caught smoking weed. His tour bus was raided in Sweden when the police thought drugs Were being used inside. Reports say that the officers found â€Å"narcotics† on the bus but there were no charges, as the police couldn't determine who they belonged to. Justine was also allegedly caught one time before this for the use of marijuana but biblically and comically a pologized to fans during a skit while hosting Saturday Night Live in February (Marcus). S normal for every college age kid to drink or try pot (not legally of course, but it still happens), but Justine has to endure the wrath of the media because he such a big star. Bibber has been criticized for all sorts of mischievous things recently like, going to clubs, supposedly spitting on his fans, peeing in a mop bucket, reckless driving of expensive sports cars, attacking a London paparazzi and many more. These sorts of activities are leaving parents of young fans wondering if Justine is a good role model/ icon and wondering what sorts of messages and values he is sending to his monger fan base.Being born and raised in Canada, permits drinking and club-going at age 18, so he has been legal there for over a year, but he cannot partake in those types of behaviors in the US, where he lives and owns a house in Calabash, California. The most recent scandal surrounding Bibber is the wild party he threw at his California home this past weekend. TOM reports that Justine threw a â€Å"Gatsby like† party at his home, that was â€Å"FILLED with naked chicks† thought to be stripers that he was â€Å"tipping like a Pro†. He was said to have dropped $10,000 in cash on all the girls.

The Physics of Ultrasound Essay - 888 Words

Without the use of physics in the medical field today, diagnosis of problems would be challenging, to say the least. The world of medical imaging in particular has benefited greatly from the use of physics. Ultrasound is sound waves that have a frequency above human audible. (Ultrasound Physics and Instrument 111). With a shorter wavelength than audible sound, these waves can be directed into a narrow beam that is used in imaging soft tissues. As with audible sound waves, ultrasound waves must have a medium in which to travel and are subject to interference. In addition, much like light rays, they can be reflected, refracted, and focused. In general, ultrasound waves produced by an instrument called transducer are sent into a†¦show more content†¦With direct current, if the pressure is applied to the disk, voltage is produced; if the alternately current can also be used, in which case the disk alternately expands and contracts. Based on the principle of the piezoelectric, a lternating pressure on the disk likewise produces an alternating voltage. (Farr and Allisy-Roberts 185-86). Transducers are used in either pulsed or continuous wave modes, corresponding to the use of direct current or alternating current, respectively. Pulsed modes are basically used for imaging, while continuous wave modes are primarily used for therapy. In a continuous wave mode, the disk on the transducer expands and contracts back and forth, creating a continuous wave with the same frequency as the vibrating the transducer. Because the velocity of sound changes as it encounters objects of differing densities, the wavelength of the ultrasound changes proportionally, since the frequency is held the same. Thus, if a transducer is operating at 3.5 MHz, the wavelength of the ultrasound wave through average soft tissue in which sound has a velocity of about 1540 m/s. 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